Student Study Section

STUDENT STUDY SECTION Review questions Study the timeline above and then read the following quotation. The nation that political problems could more naturally be solved by violence than by debate was firmly entrenched in a country in which for a thousand years civil war has been if not exactly the norm then certainly no rarity. From Paul Preton, The Spanish Civil War: Reaction, Revolution and Revenge, 2006 1. Looking at the timeline above showing events in Spain in the 19th and early 20th centuries, what evidence is there for Preston’s argument? 2.What factors were causing tension in Spain during this time? (Economic, military, religious, political? ) 3. What example of foreign intervention was there in Spain in the 29th century? STUDENT STUDY SECTION Review questions 1. Draw a mind map or spider diagram of the key issues dividing Spain by 1931 2. Explain the events that led to the fall of Kind Alfonso in 1931. 3. Looking at the long-term issues in Spain and the political even ts of the 19th century, what problems was the Second Republic likely to face? Do you consider that war was inevitable by mid 1931? STUDENT STUDY SECTIONReview questions How did the actions of the Second republic create more tension? In what way did they, in Paul Preston’s words, ensure that Spain’s underlying conflicts ere transmitted into national politics? STUDENT STUDY SECTION Research activity Research the Asturian miner’ uprising of 1934. In Paris, discuss the extent to which you agree that this was an attempted revolution. STUDENT STUDY SECTION Review questions 1. To what extent did economic issues lead to a civil war? 2. What was the impact of international events to the growing divisions in Spain Class debateDivide the class into three groups. Each group needs to argue one of the following: * The right wing was responsible for the Spanish Civil War * The left wing was responsible for the Spanish Civil War * Both left and right were equally responsible fo r the Spanish Civil War STUDENT STUDY SECTION Review activity Look back at the timeline on pp. 235-36. Identify key points where foreign intervention plays a significant role in the fighting. STUDENT STUDY SECTION Document analysisWhat civisms does Salvodo make of the Non-intervention Committee (p. 238)? Research activity In small group, research the different countries, groups and famous individuals that went to Spain to fight in the international Brigades; for example, the Abraham Lincoln Brigade from USA. STUDENT STUDY SECTION Review activities Summarize the key points made in the text in grid: | Nationalists | Republicans | Political strengths/weaknesses| | | Military strengths/weaknesses| | | Economic advantages/ Disadvantages| | | Foreign assistance| | | Class debate Divide the class into two groups.One side will argue that the Nationalists’ strengths won the Spanish Civil War, the other will argue that it was due to Republican weaknesses. The motion is: The strengths o f the Nationalists won the Civil War. Each side must have a series of thematic and coherent arguments. To gain a point, they have to support arguments with clear evidence. STUDENT STUDY SECTION Read the following sources and answer the questions: Document A The nationalists maintained that Guernical had been blown up by the Basques themselves, in order to discredit the blameless Nationalists.A later version said that Republican planes dropped bomb to detonate charges dynamite placed in the sewers. Twenty years later it was still a crime in Franco’s Spain to say that Guernical had been destroyed by the Nationalists. Document B Our consciences were uneasy about it. After living through the raid we knew only too well that the destruction had come from the air. The Reds had hardly any planes, we knew that too. Amongst our own, we’d admit the truth: our side had bombed the town and it was a bad thing. But what can we do about it now? We’d say. It was simply better to keep quite.From a statement by Juan Sangroniz, a Nationalists, quoted in Ronald Fraser, Blood of Spain Document C The Germans said the wind caused the bombes to drift eastwards [the target had been a bridge on the river]. In fact Guernica was a military target, being a communications centre close to the line. Retreating republican soldiers could only escape with any ease through Guernical because the bridge over the river was the last one before the sea. But if the aim of the Condor Legion was destroy the bridge why did they not use their supremely accurate stuka bombers?At least part to aim must have been to cause maximum panic and confusion among civilians as well as soldier. The use of incendiary bombs proves that some destruction of buildings and people other than it bridge must have been intended From Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War, 1977 Questions 1. In what ways are the views expressed in Document A supported by the views in Document B 2. What reasons are identified in Do cument C for the bombing of Guernica? STUDENT STUDY SECTION Essay work Planning essay in an essential way to revise topics as you approach examinations. In pairs or groups, plan out the essays below.Your plan should include: * An introduction written out in full * The opening sentence for each paragraph setting out your ‘topic’ * Bullet points setting out the evidence to go in each paragraph * A conclusion written out in full Each group should present it essay plan to the rest of the class. How much overlap of content is three between the different essay plans? Some hints are given for your planning in the first 3 essays Essay 1 Analyze the causes of the Spain Civil War. You could structure this essay thematically, and consider the key issues in the long term and the short term.Your analysis should then explain why there was tension that intensified over time. Remember to include the ‘trigger’ of the civil war, as this explains why the war broke out when it did. * Themes: 1898-1931 –Economic/Social/Polical/Empire * Themes:1931-36 –Land reforms/Church reforms/Social unrest /Reaction of right/Popular Front * Trigger:1936 –The attempted coup. Essays 2 What were the key effects of the Spanish Civil War? You might want to include material from this chapter on the ‘nature’ of the war in this essay, as well as focusing on the more general results.It might be helpful for you to structure your essay in two parts: effects of the war internally on Spain, and then effects of the war external on the other countries. Remember to attempt to adopt a thematic approach. Essay 3 What was the impact of foreign intervention in the Spain Civil War? You could discuss this question in terms of how the ‘nature’ of the war was affected by foreign intervention: * Polarizing the complex political divisions in Spain * Increasing the brutality and casualty rate * Protracting the war. You could then discuss this questi on in terms of how the ‘outcome’ of the war was affected by foreign intervention† * Germany/Italy/Portugal: Strengthening the military capabilities of the Nationalists * USSR: Weakening the political unity of the Republic, and then undermining its ability to wage war by withdrawing support * NIC and Neutrals benefited the Nationalists Now attempt to make detailed plans for the following essay questions: * In what ways and to what extent, did social and religious divisions lead to war in Spain in 1936? * To what extent was the Spanish Civil War caused by division in Spain and in Spain society? Assess the impact of political and constitutional developments in Spain between 1930 and 1939 * Why did the Constitutional Monarchy in Spain collapse in 1931? * Carlism is a political movement in Spain that looks to establish a separate line of the Bourbon family on the Spanish throne. This line is descended from Carlos V ( 1788-1855). * The Civil Guard was founded in 1844. I ts purpose was to control the peasantry, maintain the status quo and stamp out any anti-monarchist, revolutionary sentiment. It was particularly active in the Basque Provinces and was hated by the peasantry.It was later to play a role in supporting the conservative downers in resisting the reforms of the Second Republic. * The destabilization of the Spanish electoral system is the worth nothing that the Spain electoral system ensured that only a small swing in the number of votes cast had a huge effect on the parliamentary system. Thus, although there was only a minor shift of votes from the left to the right, there was a big change in parliamentary power. The same was ro happen in 1926 when the Popular front gained control. The instability created by the electoral system was a contributory factor to the breakdown of the Second Republic.

Story

Television is an inescapable part of modern culture. We depend on TV for entertainment, news, education, culture, weather, sports—and even music, since the advent of music videos. TIP: Create your own family TV-viewing traditions, such as watching Olympic coverage, the NHL playoffs, classic movies or a weekly comedy show. With the recent explosion in satellite and digital speciality channels, we now have access to a plethora of both good quality and inappropriate TV content.In this crowded television environment, the key for parents is to search out high quality TV programs for their kids, and whenever possible, enjoy them together as a family. Television offers lots of benefits to kids, including: * Because of its ability to create powerful touchstones, TV enables young people to share cultural experiences with others. * Shared viewing gives family members of all ages an opportunity to spend time together. * Parents can use TV as a catalyst to get kids reading—followin g up on TV programs by getting books on the same subjects or reading authors whose work was adapted for the programs. Great television can teach kids important values and life lessons. * TV programs often explores controversial or sensitive issues, which can make it easier for parents and kids to discuss them. * Educational programming can develop young children's socialization and learning skills. * News, current events and historical programming can help make young people more aware of other cultures and people. * Documentaries can help develop critical thinking about society and the world. *TIP: Whenever possible, choose Canadian programs for your family viewing time. TV can help introduce your family to classic Hollywood films and foreign movies that may not be available in your local video store. * Cultural programming can open up the world of music and art for young people. How to choose good TV How can you select viewing that is good for your children? David Kleeman, Director of the American Center for Children and Media, says ask yourself the following questions: * Does the program actively engage my child, physically or intellectually?Television watching doesn't have to be passive. It can prompt questions, kindle curiosity, or teach activities to pursue when the set is off. * Do I respect this program? Parents don't have to like every show their children choose—in fact young people need their own district culture. But parents should trust that a program's creators understand and respect how children grow and learn. * Does my child see others like himself or herself on television? Young children believe that television reflects the real world.To not see people like themselves—in race, ethnicity, or physical ability, for example—may diminish their self worth. A lack of role models should spark discussion about how TV portrays different types of people. * How do makers of this program regard my child? Some program creators see young people as consumers to be sold to. Others see them as students to be educated, as future citizens to be engaged in the community, or simply as children, whose work is play. Use the resources on the side bar to help you find good quality television for your kids. Story In this assignment, students will work independently to write a short formal report that analyzes a situation and provides recommendations. This course project will satisfy TCOs 4, 6 and 8. Overview In this assignment, students will analyze two possible career choices of their choosing, and then write a formal analytical report effectively presenting a recommendation to pursue one of the careers. This project has two parts: Part one, the Table of Contents and Introductory Section, is due at the end of week 6.Part two, he report in its entirety, is due at the end of week 8. Students are encouraged to begin work on this project no later than week 5, reading the project directions, reading Chapters 13, 14, and 15, and, if time permits, doing preliminary research. Formal Report Topic This assignment is based on you choosing two possible career choices you would recommend to an employee, client or professional contact. Here's the situation: You are to choose two possible career choices.Yo ur report should include the following: Information and background about your two career choices. Research from at least ix credible sources to inform your audience and to support the recommendation(s) APA citations for all researched information (in-text parenthetical citations and a reference list at the end of the report) Formal report formatting You will need to conduct outside research and cite your sources using APA citations. Conclude the formal report by making recommendations to your audience.Your report MUST be formatted as a formal report. Part One (Due Week 6) Table of Contents and Introduction Your assignment this week is to write your formal report's table of contents and introduction, using formal formatting. To complete this assignment, you will need to have a good plan in place for your formal report. I encourage you to use the three- step process we've been studying this session. (The formal report is due in its entirety at the end of week 8. In week 6, only the ta ble of contents and introduction are due. In week 6, your asslgnment snou10 Include tne Tollowlng: A table of contents using formal report formatting. (Note that page numbers are not necessary this week, as you will not have written the actual report yet. Page numbers should be added next week, though, when you complete the report. ) The table of ontents should include first- and second-level headings, like the example on page 437 in chapter 15. Include an introductory section featuring the following four parts (see page 439 in chapter 15 for an example.Introduction Purpose, Scope, and Limitations Sources and Methods Report Organization Identify at least six credible sources you will use in your proposal in the â€Å"Sources and Methods† section. Use formal report formatting. Be free of grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. Part Two (Due Week 8) Formal Report in Full In week 6, you planned the formal report and wrote the Table of Contents and Introduction. In week 8, you will complete the formal report. (You may need to revise the Table of Contents and Introduction, based on the feedback you receive from your instructor. In week 8, your assignment should contain the following: Be formatted as a formal report, following the guidelines for formal reports in the text (including the guidelines for headings and subheadings found on pages 435-448); Include appropriate prefatory, text, and supplemental parts (The formal report should contain appropriate prefatory, text, and supplemental parts, including he following: a cover and/or title page; a letter of transmittal; a table of contents; the four-part Introductory Section from week 6; appropriately labeled body sections; and appendices, such as the client interview and list of references.Your report does not need to contain all of these parts, but should contain most of them. ); Fully answer the question of what career would you recommend to an employee, client or professional contact. The word count for the intro, body, and conclusion should be 1250-1750 words); Use at least six credible researched sources appropriately and ffectively; Include proper documentation using APA style (both in-text and end-of- text citations–please check your work using turnitin. om); and Be free of spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. Note: Visual aids are entirely appropriate for this kind of report, but they are not requlrea. IT you aec10e to use visual alas, De ce rtaln to aanere to tne stanaaras we have studied previously in this course. How the Formal Report Assignment is Graded The Formal Report Assignment will be graded according to the criteria set forth in the Rubrics for weeks 6 and 7/8, located in Doc Sharing. Story In this assignment, students will work independently to write a short formal report that analyzes a situation and provides recommendations. This course project will satisfy TCOs 4, 6 and 8. Overview In this assignment, students will analyze two possible career choices of their choosing, and then write a formal analytical report effectively presenting a recommendation to pursue one of the careers. This project has two parts: Part one, the Table of Contents and Introductory Section, is due at the end of week 6.Part two, he report in its entirety, is due at the end of week 8. Students are encouraged to begin work on this project no later than week 5, reading the project directions, reading Chapters 13, 14, and 15, and, if time permits, doing preliminary research. Formal Report Topic This assignment is based on you choosing two possible career choices you would recommend to an employee, client or professional contact. Here's the situation: You are to choose two possible career choices.Yo ur report should include the following: Information and background about your two career choices. Research from at least ix credible sources to inform your audience and to support the recommendation(s) APA citations for all researched information (in-text parenthetical citations and a reference list at the end of the report) Formal report formatting You will need to conduct outside research and cite your sources using APA citations. Conclude the formal report by making recommendations to your audience.Your report MUST be formatted as a formal report. Part One (Due Week 6) Table of Contents and Introduction Your assignment this week is to write your formal report's table of contents and introduction, using formal formatting. To complete this assignment, you will need to have a good plan in place for your formal report. I encourage you to use the three- step process we've been studying this session. (The formal report is due in its entirety at the end of week 8. In week 6, only the ta ble of contents and introduction are due. In week 6, your asslgnment snou10 Include tne Tollowlng: A table of contents using formal report formatting. (Note that page numbers are not necessary this week, as you will not have written the actual report yet. Page numbers should be added next week, though, when you complete the report. ) The table of ontents should include first- and second-level headings, like the example on page 437 in chapter 15. Include an introductory section featuring the following four parts (see page 439 in chapter 15 for an example.Introduction Purpose, Scope, and Limitations Sources and Methods Report Organization Identify at least six credible sources you will use in your proposal in the â€Å"Sources and Methods† section. Use formal report formatting. Be free of grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. Part Two (Due Week 8) Formal Report in Full In week 6, you planned the formal report and wrote the Table of Contents and Introduction. In week 8, you will complete the formal report. (You may need to revise the Table of Contents and Introduction, based on the feedback you receive from your instructor. In week 8, your assignment should contain the following: Be formatted as a formal report, following the guidelines for formal reports in the text (including the guidelines for headings and subheadings found on pages 435-448); Include appropriate prefatory, text, and supplemental parts (The formal report should contain appropriate prefatory, text, and supplemental parts, including he following: a cover and/or title page; a letter of transmittal; a table of contents; the four-part Introductory Section from week 6; appropriately labeled body sections; and appendices, such as the client interview and list of references.Your report does not need to contain all of these parts, but should contain most of them. ); Fully answer the question of what career would you recommend to an employee, client or professional contact. The word count for the intro, body, and conclusion should be 1250-1750 words); Use at least six credible researched sources appropriately and ffectively; Include proper documentation using APA style (both in-text and end-of- text citations–please check your work using turnitin. om); and Be free of spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. Note: Visual aids are entirely appropriate for this kind of report, but they are not requlrea. IT you aec10e to use visual alas, De ce rtaln to aanere to tne stanaaras we have studied previously in this course. How the Formal Report Assignment is Graded The Formal Report Assignment will be graded according to the criteria set forth in the Rubrics for weeks 6 and 7/8, located in Doc Sharing.

Consumer law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Consumer law - Essay Example As a general rule, the goods sold must â€Å"meet the standard that a reasonable person would regards as satisfactory, taking into account any description of the goods, the price and all other relevant circumstances†.1 By quality of goods, the intent of the law is to include not only the appearance and finish of the goods but also their durability and safety. The sales of Goods Act of 1979 so provides that a seller must only sell goods that conforms to its description and the failure of the seller to meet the requirements of the standards set would result into a liability on the part of the seller. Note that even tiny defects that could have gone unnoticed both by the seller and the consumer at the time the goods were sold are considered as non-compliance to the standards of the goods sold and shall be considered as a ground to impose liability on the part of the seller, should the consumer demand for such. However, where the goods are sold as â€Å"shop-soiled† or as damaged goods and the seller openly declares such damage, the seller shall not be held liable for non-compliance with the standards of goods sold. The goods must therefore be as described2. Aside from the standard of goods sold which must be satisfied, the goods must be fit for its purpose. According to the Supply of Goods and Services Act of 1982, the goods must be fit for any particular purpose mentioned by the seller to the buyer. For instance, where the seller purports to sell a pair of climbing shoes, such climbing shoes should be fit for the purpose and will not break easily from the rigors of mountain climbing. Where the goods do not perform as the seller claims it would, then we can say that the goods does not match its description not just in its physical appearance but also in its capabilities. In our hypothetical case, Lil bought a pair of shoes from â€Å"tuffstuff† and wore them on a hill-walking holiday. By the end of the holiday, the shoes

Goal setting for college Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Goal setting for college - Essay Example Mainly, these small or short duration targets act as motivating aspects and reminder of long-term accomplishments in the future, for instance, career (Van, 2012). It is a meticulous self-evaluation and comparison against any set targets, which an individual intends to commit oneself in attaining them. Mainly, this entails an individual recognizing his or her fallibility and devising effective strategies meant to attain what one desires (Van, 2012). It is the way of questioning the obvious or humanity’s conventional way of thinking and brainstorming with an intention of coming up with new perspectives meant to attain a set target (Halonen & Santrock, 2013). This allows an individual to develop numerous perspectives whose core purpose is to meet their goals (Halonen & Santrock, 2013). This is a belief of an individual that basic abilities develop through commitment. Therefore, challenges or failures usually avail an individual chances to learn from own mistakes and rectify them with an intention of repositioning themselves to reach high heights. The process entails addressing all underlying concerns that may prompt an individual fail to attain his or her potential. Hence, enable one to operate from a â€Å"logical thinking mode† instead of emotional. Accomplishing of any goal entails one to prepare effectively and as necessitated. This encompasses proper goals’ setting besides meticulous scrutiny of oneself with the intention of developing a strong growth mindset. This knowhow will help me to plan and attain my set targets with ease, hence become successful in life. Since, I will be able to plan well and even utilize the acquired skills from this exercise to succeed almost in all

SS310 unit 6 DB Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

SS310 unit 6 DB - Research Paper Example The civil rights movement also coincided with the women’s movement which had the same aspirations and ambitions that civil rights strove for but focused on the female population and their rights (MacLean, 2006). The successes that were achieved by the civil rights movement helped the Women’s rights as well and enabled them to gain the equality that they had been struggling so hard to gain over the years. A number of the successes that were achieved affected the women as well and thus in this way it can be said that both movements were connected in their fight to achieve their goal of equality(English, 2009). A good example would be the passage of the 1963Equal Pay Act that can be related to the Greensboro sit-ins in 1960. The sit ins were staged in protest of the racial segregation policies that were practiced by Woolworth in the southern states whereby the white employees received better treatment and pay than their African American counterparts (English, 2009). The sit-ins were able to gain a lot of media coverage and can be said to be part of the reason that the equal pay act was eventually passed in 1963 and abolished pay disparities which affected the women as well. Through these two connections one can see that the civil rights movement did serve a part in increasing the momentum of the women’s movement and the rights that they were fighting for as they took into consideration all groups that were discriminated against including the female population(MacLean,

Cosmetic Composition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Cosmetic Composition - Essay Example A brief introduction of some of the frequently used chemicals is given below and their effects on the skin are also discussed. Tretinoin also commonly known as Retin-A is a chemical derived form vitamins and is usually used for the treatment of acne. Later it was discovered that it can also be used for the elimination of small wrinkles. After this discovery, cosmetic companies ritually started including vitamin A in their cosmetics claiming it to be highly beneficial, others disagreed and stated that Retin A actually irritates and puffs up the skin which gives it a smooth wrinkle free look. Secondly fruit acids generally popular as Alpha Hyroxy Acids (AHA) claimed to gently remove the dead skin cells revealing softer and smoother inner layer. Later on studies revealed that AHA’s should not be used very frequently since they can serve to be drugs rather than cosmetic and it was also prohibited since it is very frequently used by non trained beauticians which can bring about ver y serious damages to the skin. The very popularly used exfoliants can also be very damaging and hazardous to the skin since they serve to remove the dead and mature skin cells revealing and exposing the premature skin cells to dust and ultraviolet rays. In the absence of the adult skin cells, the premature ones have a tendency to age and dry out rapidly. (Leslie, 100) Use of Masks and Serums and its Impact on the Beauty Industry The basic concerns of individuals, as far as skin is concerned is aging spots and areas affected by the ultraviolet rays. Skin specialists have been focusing their concentration on these problems so that they can be easily tackled and taken care of. The extract of Magnolia Sieboldii is used to address the problem of photoaging and also for the prevention of wrinkles. Its extract has the ability to protect the skin cells from the sun rays and ensures minimum skin damage by suppressing the damage of the skin cells and DNA. It also contains within itself the pr operty of reducing the wrinkles that appear on the skin with time, it does so by providing growth to the synthesis of collagen simultaneously retarding the growth of collagenases. Hence it is widely used in sunblocks, and also in anti ageing masks and serums. Other natural active ingredients used in cosmetics are alcohol, aloe vera, amino acids, avocado oil, beeswax, cucumber extract etc. Their useful affects on skin cells and body are as discussed. Alcohol is used in a lot of cosmetics for the purpose of skin firming and disinfecting it. Aloe vera is considered to be very effective in treating damaged and dry skin, providing it moisture and a soothing effect. It regenerates the dead and mature skin cells. Beeswax is simply the wax produced by the bees and is known to be effective for the protection and moisture locking in the cells. Avocado is a multipurpose fruit which is used for eating as well as in the cosmetic industry. Its extracts are immediately absorbed by the skin making it supple without a fatty appearance to it. It maintains and revitalizes the working of the lipid barrier making lamellar coverings which give the skin a unitone complexion along with flexibility. (Valerie, 219) Benefits of Cosmetic Composition Cosmetics may have hazardous effects on the skin but if used wisely and in the right proportion can make the skin

Childs needs vs needs of the economy in formal education Essay

Childs needs vs needs of the economy in formal education - Essay Example The economic status of the nation and its needs serves as a marker as to what the society will or will not enjoy. It is very sound that education is one of the key in order for the economy to bloom. First, intelligent citizens that could react and work well to the accelarating global trend will do much contributions to the economic uplifting. The skills and values that children will learn in school is a valuable asset that they can use up to their proceeding years of life. In this context, the government or even parents encouraged their children to go have their formal education at their young age. The intention of early formal education is good, which is to make the child prepared for the needs of the economy. There is nothing wrong that children will learn how to read and write, or for them to learn how they are going to be responsible citizens. It is also good that they will will excel in their academic performance which might be the main reason for sending them to school at their early age. However, concentrating too much with the requirment of the economy in early formal education, mainly to the academic development of the child with to much expectation on academic performance at very young age is a serious issue. Academic expectation might be a thing that is in conflict with the child’s needs. This might outweighed children’s early development most especially the social and the cognitive progress. Early development in the child is very crucial, therefore it is necessary that every steps of that early development should not be disregarded. The concepts of Montessori about early child development is not necessarily to put pressure on the child by means of filling his mind with informations where he might not be ready of, but to cultivate the natural desire of the children to learn by means of designing situations wherein the children could react and eventually learn. It is the

Cause and effect Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Cause and effect - Essay Example This paper explores the causes and effects of high rate of divorce. The causes of high divorce rate include but are not limited to changed gender roles in marriage and change in laws whereas some of the effects of high divorce rate include distorted family system, single parenthood, and depression. Gender roles in marriage have changed under the influence of media and this has caused an increase in the divorce rate. The soaps, commercials, and movies have inculcated the concept in the minds of the audience that in order to be modern and successful, it is imperative that both members in a couple work. The media has especially placed emphasis on the work of women. More job opportunities have been created for women in order to make it easy for them to find work. As a result, women have started paying more attention toward their careers and professions than their homes. In the past, men worked and assumed the responsibility of earning bread for the family whereas women stayed at home and took care of the children. â€Å"Women feel caught in the middle, burdened by increased demands from both work and family† (Clarke-Stewart and Brentano 34). More and more women are giving up in their struggle to strike a balance between family and work and are eventually heading for divorce . Before 1970, couples needed to justify their attempt to seek divorce by proving at least one of the partners guilty of something or being at fault. Reasons that made divorce seem justified in the eyes of the law included but were not limited to cruelty, abandonment, intoxication, cheating, and adultery. However, some states introduced the option of no-fault divorce in the 1950s. Under the changed law, the need for couples to prove one of the partners being at fault was obviated. Instead, they could simply state that their marriage was not working. Nearly all states had allowed no-fault divorce by 1970. In the past,

Theoretical Skirmish Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Theoretical Skirmish - Essay Example 115), while Condit did not clearly define the term, but stated that hegemony resisted â€Å"the exclusive and narrow focus on the economic base that pervaded earlier Marxist theories† (Condit, 1994, p. 206). Condit stated that the earlier Marxist theories held that in capitalism, dominant classes imposed their capitalism ideology on the working class, and that, since capitalism flourished around the globe, while Marxism failed, the ideology had to have been spread by â€Å"coercive military force of the State proper and the leadership exerted in the civil society on behalf of the world view of the group in power† (Condit, 1994, p. 206). In other words, according to this theory, capitalism is maintained in these societies by coercion and by leadership. The leaders must have allies with whom they have active assent, while also maintaining passive assent from the governed. In this way, there is a distinction between power and leading – power is something that a person obtains, while leading is the quality the person exerts. It is this latter quality that stabilizes a society. Leading takes into account that there are a spectrum of interests in the populace, and that the leadi ng groups interest is not the only one. If a society does not take this into account, but, rather, that the leader merely dictates his own worldview on the populace, this is dominating, as opposed to leading, and this results in â€Å"dictatorship without hegemony† (Condit, 1994, p. 207). Thus, hegemony is defined as a way to stabilize society by generating some kind of consent by the populace to the ideological bent of the leader. Condit and Cloud take slightly different tacts in illustrating the concept of hegemony, however. Condit states that hegemony in the United States is accomplished by concordance. In pre-industrial societies, hegemony was accomplished in a different way. Because these societies were more

Role of Stakeholder Essay Example for Free

Role of Stakeholder Essay An organization is made possible by its human component, its human capital. Sociologically speaking, a business or a company is a social group, secondary or referential in nature, made up of the people that consider themselves as members of the organization. Beyond membership however there is another human component. These are the stakeholders. Stakeholders are individuals and groups that can affect or be affected by the actions of the organization as a whole. The notion of stakeholders had been introduced in 1963 by the Stanford Research Institute to describe and explain the importance of considering and factoring into any plan or strategy elements and concerns that would affect â€Å"individuals or organizations who stand to gain or lose from the success or failure of a system† (Nuseibeh Easterbrook, 2000). Broadly, it means anyone who has an interest in any matter or element in the organizations purview. As an example, let us take a sample organization a school. So, who would be the stakeholders? First-off, its students, pupils, teachers and support staff. Then we have the parents of the children, their families, the school board and the greater Academic organization that oversees the school for the county and for the state. Then we have the community that the school is a part of (since the school is the academic and social training ground that shapes the behavior and knowledge of their young) and in the broader view, we have the greater society who will be affected by the actions of the school in that the children that it educates will take part in their adult life via the varied roles and actions they will have and perform in society. As such, the greater American society has a stake in the quality and kind of education American kids receive in grade school and high schools across America. After all, the children are the future of this country. Now, for instance, if a public school closes down in a county due to budget cuts, all its stakeholders will be affected. The kids must be placed elsewhere; it will strain their families and the education system that must find locations and areas to accept them. The staff and the teachers are going to be out of a job affecting their ability to support themselves and their families economically and the county, the community, the school board and the greater academic system will be saddled with responsibilities over pupils and students to place them in schools and to provide professional and financial support according to contract to staff and teachers. The community will feel the strain of the closing of the school and the discontent and social collective feelings/opinions, either negative or positive will affect local politics. The displacement will affect the socialization of the children and the formation of their personalities for the rest of their lives. The greater impact then will be long term as the abrupt change in their education will shape their future selves, selves that in their adult life will take over from their parents in the varied roles important to their communities. With the example above, I hope that the idea of stakeholders is already clear. Now, Let us consider a business or a company. The following are general types that many private commercial organizations can identify with: †¢Owners/Capitalists they are interested in the success of their investment/business. †¢Creditors/Investors like the above, they are interested in the success but they look at the bottom-line liquidity, credit score and new contracts, for example. †¢Employees/Staff they are interested not only in the success of their organization but focus on their job security, rates of pay, compensation, communication, and the way that they are treated by the organization altogether. Clients/Customer they are interested in the value of the products and services, ethical practices, quality of service and costumer care. †¢Suppliers Partners they are interested in providing the raw materials as well as support and services for the organization as well as for their own equitable business interests which will be affected by the organizations actions and decisions, †¢Trade Unions their interest is in the protection of the rights, benefits and interests of their union members, †¢Greater Community their interest is in the provision of jobs to community members, transparency, CSR, environmental rotection, shares, ethical practice, etc. †¢Government the governments interest is in the legality of certain practices, equal opportunity, taxation, VAT and related legislatory concerns. From the above, we can see how and why and organizations health as well as its practices will be of interest to the listed stakeholders. For example, if capitalists are concerned that the business has lost its profitability, it can pull out from the arrangement resulting to its closure or failure of the owners and other stakeholders will be unable to take over and resolve the pull-out of primary capitalists. Additionally, if a company or organization fails, its staff will lose jobs affecting their economic capacities. If a company does not provide satisfactory client support, clients are going to be unhappy and might not go back to use the company for its services and goods in the future. Entrepreneurship is about taking risks, going for innovations and undertaking finance and business challenges to introduce new products and create new businesses. The challenges of ensuring stakeholders are not taken for granted requires an entrepreneurial mindset, the need to continually innovate so that all concerns are referenced in essential decision making. The reform element of entrepreneurship then is important in making the actions and decisions of an organization relevant to the needs and demands of its stakeholders.

Psychometrics in the Construction Industry

Psychometrics in the Construction Industry Abstract This dissertation is about evaluating the use of psychometrics in the construction industry. The document will also present the main aims and objectives of the study. A comprehensive literature study has also been carried out with the objective of gaining an in-depth understanding of the topic of psychometrics. The literature review chapter will identify a selection of the testing methods that are available on the market, test design, usage within industry and the associated costs with such tests. A methodology and potential constraints have also been identified, and finally a timetable has been proposed. The survey indicated that companies are beginning to realise the benefits of psychometric testing, 1.1 Introduction This dissertation proposal has been compiled as part of the BSc (Honours) in construction management. It is necessary for the individual to produce a research project on the subject of his/her own choice that is construction related. The topic chosen for the purposes this dissertation is that of psychometric science. 1.2 Nature of the Problem Few people in the construction industry would disagree that effective team building is essential to success; however bringing together a bunch of individuals does not automatically produce a team (Franks 2002). Teams have to be assembled by taking into account many factors, including individual skill and particularly the personal characteristics of the individual member, psychometric testing is one way of ensuring the correct team members are recruited, thus maximizing the capabilities of the team. Psychometrics covers a range of testing methods from IQ and aptitude tests to personality questionnaires and numbercy indicators. Many organisations now use this form of testing routinely in their recruitment processes especially at senior level, according to Corcoran (2005) it forces an examination and sound understanding of the competencies inherent in the role in question and links the candidate’s competencies with those to the role. Hampton (2002) suggests that these tests are not just limited to recruitment; they can also be used in career development to raise awareness of the individual’s own strengths and weaknesses. The need for this research stems from the fact that compared to other industries where the use of psychometrics is widespread; construction firms seem to be blind to its benefits. As an industry that relies heavily on good teamwork, construction could gain from a wider implementation of psychometrics in both recruitment and team development. Also if survey statistics are to be believed, up to 56% of candidates exaggerate their skills/experience on their CV. Making a recruitment decision purely on the content of a CV and interview alone, could prove to be unreliable. Whilst a CV certainly provides an overview of a candidate’s ability, it doesn’t necessarily illustrate their suitability for the role. Likewise, an applicant may handle an interview extremely well but not have the capability to deliver the role itself. Psychometric testing therefore attempts to add a third dimension to the team building/recruitment process. The need for this research is therefore obvious and will be designed to test the following hypothesis: â€Å"Psychometric testing is critical to successful team building in the Irish construction industry.† 1.3 Rationale As an industry that relies heavily on good teamwork, it is essential that that the right people are selected for the right jobs. This rationale for this dissertation is to establish whether or not construction could benefit from the wider implementation of psychometric testing, and also to evaluate the current usage of psychometric testing in the industry. Establishing the usage of psychometric testing is a critical part of this research, it establishes the current trends in the construction industry towards recruitment and team development and once this is established it may help organisations see the way forward. To achieve this, a literature review, a pilot study and postal questionnaires shall be conducted. Initial research has indicated that the construction industry is slow to realise the benefits of testing in both recruitment and team development. Employers need to be made aware of both the advantages and disadvantages of psychometrics which enable them to make an informed decision as to whether or not psychometrics is appropriate to their organisation. 1.4 Aims The general aim of this research is to investigate if psychometric testing is either a beneficial or a counterproductive exercise to a construction organisation in the selection of team members. To establish the extent of use of psychometrics within the Irish Construction Industry. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the topic of psychometrics. 1.5 Objectives of the Research To provide a general overview of the topic of psychometric science. To review the range of testing methods available. To establish the apparent advantages and disadvantages to a construction organisation in adopting psychometric testing. To assess the current usage of psychometrics within the Irish construction industry. 1.6 Hypothesis â€Å"The benefits of Psychometric Testing are not fully appreciated in the Irish Construction Industry† 1.7 Outline Methodology The methodology section for this dissertation will provide a rationale for the choice and use of particular strategies and tools for gathering and analyzing the data. A quantitative research strategy was used as part of the methodology, which helped in the execution of both the literature review and the questionnaire. The literature review was one the first stages of the methodology; this was used to highlight the importance of using psychometric testing in both recruitment and team building. The methodology also involved the production of structured questionnaire; these were compiled to assess the current usage of psychometric testing among organisations within the Irish Construction Industry. A pilot study of the questionnaire was first conducted to provide a trial run for the questionnaire, which involves testing the wording of the questions and identifying any ambiguous questions. A detailed analysis of the results was then produced; it will consist of questions, answers, tables, figures and charts to represent the data. Finally an interview was conducted with a member of an organisation utilising psychometrics as part of their recruitment process. Methodology 2.1 Introduction This chapter will set out to outline the methods of data collection that were adopted for the purposes of the dissertation. The methodology chapter for this dissertation of 4 main parts: A general definition and review of the approach to the research. A justification for the selection of the hypothesis, aims and objectives. A description of the data collection and analytical procedures. A review of the methodological complexities that were encountered, including the limitations and constraints on the research. 2.2 Research Strategy A primarily quantitative research strategy was adopted for the purposes of this dissertation. The rationale for the selection of this method is that quantitative research is used when the individual needs to identify facts about a concept, question or an attribute. This ties in closely with the objectives and aims of the report. Naoum (1998) describes quantitative research as â€Å"an inquiry into a social or human problem, this closely relates to the initial aims objectives of the research† 2.3 Theoretical Framework This dissertation will be approached using a both sociological and psychological framework. The former of which is concerned with cultural roles, norms and values and the structuring and functioning of society. Also explored will be the psychological aspects such as personality traits and relationships between individual team members. 2.4 Historical Framework One of the first attempts to scientifically measure the differences between individuals was made by Sir Francis Galton in the 19th Century when he tried to show how the human mind could be systematically mapped into different dimensions, identifying how individuals differed in terms of their ability. The psychological approach and the first published test can be credited to Sir Alfred Binet. 2.5 Psychological Framework Psychometric testing is fundamentally a form of psychological assessment, Postal Questionnaires Postal questionnaires along with a cover letter will be distributed to a number of Irish construction firms to gather information on the current usage and the popularity of psychometrics within the Irish construction industry. Before these questionnaires are distributed, it will be necessary to complete a pilot study before the final data is collected. The pilot study will provide a trial run for the questionnaire, and its main aim is to test the wording of the questions, identify any ambiguous questions and test the techniques being used Once the pilot study is complete, the main questionnaire will be distributed. To establish an accurate sample of the industry, it will be necessary to get a minimum number of responses to the main questionnaire. This number will be determined by the constraints of time imposed on the research, however it is expected that this will be in the region of 10-15 responses. This study will be primarily aimed at the larger construction firms in the industry. A random selection procedure will be adopted, to ensure that a representative sample of the firms is taken. Where possible, questionnaires will be delivered and collected to ensure a high response rate. Otherwise when replies are not received, the enquiries will be followed up by subsequent emails and phone calls.Tables, graphs, bar charts and histograms have been identified as a means of presenting the data from the questionnaires. The Research Sample Due to the relatively high costs involved in the implementation of psychometric instruments, the smaller organisations in the industry tend to avoid using this method of recruitment and team development. To establish an accurate representation of the industry, the research sample was confined to those in the Top 100 Irish construction companies (The Times, 2007). This sample was further refined down 35 using a random selection procedure. The types of organisation were sampled from a number of different disciplines within the construction industry, including: 1. Civil Engineering Contractor’s 2. Building Contractor’s 3. Building Services Contractor’s 4.Project Management organisations 5. Engineering Consultants 6. Multi-disciplinary organisations Literature Review This paper reviews the literature on psychometric testing by employers, and considers whether or not psychometric testing is a critical element of the recruitment process. It will seek to outline the fundamental benefits associated with the concept of psychometric testing and determine current trends regarding the usage of these tests in the Irish Construction Industry. According to Reber (1995) psychometric testing has been defined as â€Å"Pertaining to mental testing in any of its facets, including assessment of personality, evaluation of intelligence, determining aptitudes.† Rust (2004) classifies these tests into two broad categories: those that assess ability and those that assess personality. The way that organizations operate has changed dramatically in the last 30 years, there are now fewer levels of management than there were, and management styles tend to be less autocratic. In addition, there appears to be a move towards more knowledge based and customer focused jobs, which means that individuals have more autonomy even in the lower levels within organizations (Edenborough 2004). The effects of these changes mean that a person’s personality is seen as more important now than it was in the past. The structure of the modern workforce within the Irish Construction Industry is also rapidly changing and teamwork is becoming increasingly important, here a psychometric test can prove an invaluable tool, not only does it make sure that each team has the required skills but it also ensures that the people who make up team can work well together or that they can â€Å"gel effectively†. An article in China Staff magazine (2003) points out that this doesn’t mean that everybody in the team should be the same, rather than that you end up with a combination of personalities who can work well together. Each type of test may not suit every organisation, the design of a testing procedure must be based on what the user is wishing to achieve from the results. Burke (1995) suggests that the various types of â€Å"tests are designed for a purpose and the use of a particular test will vary according to the objectives of the assessment. In order to ascertain which tests you should use, it is necessary to gain an in-depth understanding of the characteristics necessary to perform well at the job. Recruitment and Selection Many organisations now use psychometric testing routinely in their recruitment process especially at a senior level. It forces an examination and sound understanding of the competencies inherent in the role in question and links the candidate’s competencies with those of the role. It makes for sound selection decisions and identifies development areas for the successful candidate (Corcoran 2005). Ideally, if psychometrics is used at the initial selection stage, employers are immediately aware of any areas ability or personality where an employee might not be an exact match for the job, and can make informed decisions as to whether the employee should be selected and trained, or rejected. Type of Testing Available Personality Measurement Tests These tests are used to assess how a person is likely to react to situations with people, the types of relationship they prefer to establish with others, and the motivational factors that influence a person’s actions. These are often known as tests of disposition. These tests do not generally contain questions to which there is only one correct answer. The answers given to these questions tend to reflect a tendency to interpret situations or respond to other people in particular ways. Burke (1995) outlines the typical qualities assessed by disposition tests; these include anxiety, sociability, perseverance, dominance, fear of failure and resistance to stress. A common approach to in psychometrics is to see personality as a combination of traits. A trait can be any characteristic way of behaving, thinking, feeling or operating. The measure of these ‘traits’ has always been a matter of interest for many years, it has been recognized that personality is of great impo rtance in peoples success at work, no less than the approach they take in other aspects of their life (Edenbourgh 2005). Psychologists often refer to these as the ‘big five’ personality traits. Openness appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. Conscientiousness a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior. Extraversion energy, positive emotions, urgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others. Agreeableness a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. Neuroticism a tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability; sometimes called emotional instability. The argument runs that personality questionnaires do not test behavior directly but rather how the respondent chooses to describe his or her own behavior. It also argued by Cronbach (1966) that such questionnaires or self-report inventories, as they are sometimes known, indicate typical behavior. One corollary to this view by Reber(1995) is that such behavior is not very amenable to change, these type of tests have no right or wrong answers as such, however there is certainly the right and wrong personality mixes for certain jobs. Ability and Aptitude Tests ‘Aptitude’ and ‘Ability’ tests are not always precisely separated; many of the tests in these categories are used to look at behavior, often of an intellectual or cognitive nature. These are usually tests of general intelligence, which can be regarded as mental horsepower or as measure of a person’s ability to process information. Tests of ability generally assess the broader areas of what a person can do. While scores on such tests are influenced by education and training, they are not designed to assess specific areas of knowledge or skill. Examples of ability tests are: measures of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning and mechanical reasoning. China Staff magazine (2003) defines ability testing â€Å"as a measure of a persons potential to learn the new skills needed for a new job or to cope with the demands of a training course.† Tests of aptitude on the other hand are often used to assess how well an individual is likely to perform in a training programme or in a job Edenbourgh (2005) attempts to distinguish between the two: The term ‘aptitude’ is usually reserved for those tests directed at predicting whether skill in a particular area can be acquired. ‘Ability tests’ on the other hand tend to be reserved for measures of less job-specific though often still job-related intellectual tests. Attainment Tests These are often referred to as achievement tests; these are more commonly used in relation to educational assessment rather than in occupational settings. They represent standard ways of assessing the amount of skill currently reached or attained by an individual in a particular area. Tests of attainment are often linked with ability and can be quite similar; the difference is that they test specifically what people have learnt e.g. mathematical ability or typing skills. Of course what people have learned does depend on their ability in that domain in the first place, so the scores of the two types of test are linked. Another differentiation between the two is that ability tests are retrospective in nature; they focus on what has been learnt and on what a person knows and can do now. Ability tests on the other hand are prospective: they focus on what candidates are capable of learning and achieving in the future or on their potential to learn. (China Staff Magazine 2003) Assessment Centres Psychometric testing often takes place within the context of an assessment centre. Edenbourgh (2004) points outs that organisations use a range of selection methods, including interviews, group exercises, role-playing, in-basket exercises as well as psychometric testing in order to select from a group of job applicants. Candidates are likely to encounter tests that will simulate situations that are likely to be encountered in a particular role. Assessment centre selection methods can take one or two days to complete, and because of the cost and time taken these are generally only associated with larger organisations. Assessment centers are usually used after the initial stages of the selection process and usually follow the initial job interview. They are commonly held either on employers’ premises or in a hotel and are considered by many organizations to be the fairest and most accurate method of selecting staff. This according to Psychometric Success is because â€Å"a number of different selectors will get to see the individual over a longer period of time and have the chance to see what he/she do, rather than what the individual says they can do.† Tests that are carried out within these assessment centres are often conducted by HR personnel however it is often the case that external consultants will be brought in to administer the tests. Ability to distinguish between candidates Any selection tool should be able to distinguish between candidates in two ways: 1) The tool should be accurate and precise. Any differences in results between candidates should be real and not simply random or due to errors or inaccuracies. This is known as reliability, and psychometric tools have consistently been shown to be more reliable than other common selection methods. 2) The differences in results between candidates should reflect differences in their ability to perform in the job. This is known as criterion-related validity. As shown in Diagram 3, psychometric tools do predict job performance well, provided that the right tool has been chosen, for example, via a careful analysis of the attributes required for the job. Differences in results do therefore relate to differences in ability to perform well in the job. The importance of getting this right is one reason why most instruments are only sold to those who have been trained in their use. Reliability One of the main problems associated with psychometric testing is the issue of test reliability. For instance, if there is high competition for a job  then there is strong incentive for candidates to present themselves favorably.   Similarly candidates can be tempted to respond to personality questionnaires in a way they assume the employer wants.   If we consider a construction related job, how many candidates will disagree with the statement I enjoy working in team environment? Edenbourgh (2005) identifies one way of increasing the reliability in personality questionnaires, this is to use forced-choice formats whereby candidates are presented with a combination of statements and must indicate a preference between them, this method of combining items is known as ‘ipsative’ scaling. This can be contrasted with the ‘normative scaling’, in which the candidate is instructed to choose one statement from a selection of 2 or more. For example in an ipsative test, a question might ask a candidate to choose whether they are more hard working or creative.   In this case the candidate cannot make themselves look good on both of the statements, it therefore can be said that this method can increase the reliability of certain tests and give the assessor a greater profile of the candidate’s personality. Disadvantages to Psychometric Testing In many cases, psychometric tests and questionnaires have been put together by people with little background in psychometrics and they may have very little actual utility and value for the purposes for which they are marketed. Although British Psychological Society (BPS) has a standard qualification system, it is not unusual for tests to be used by people who are not adequately trained to score them. Also just because a person attends a recognized training course it cannot be guaranteed that they will use tests and questionnaires correctly since some instruments, particularly personality questionnaires, require considerable experience and the possibility of poor interpretation of results is ever-present. Another disadvantage of psychometric testing is the use of personality questionnaires to assess an individual’s ability or skill in a particular area. For example, if a person scores highly on a test called Leadership, this does not mean that he or she will actually possess a high level of leadership skill, instead it means that the individual has the basic personality characteristics that are commonly found amongst effective leaders and, with sufficient experience and given the development of certain necessary skills, has the potential to become an effective leader. (Team Focus 2004) Cost The costs associated with these tests are often substantial. This implies that employers are unlikely to be using them merely in order to follow a management trend, but because they firmly believe that the tests are useful in recruiting job applicants with the right skills and attributes. According to a recent survey by Incomes Data Services (IDS 2000), the sums involved in testing can be quite substantial. Assuming that employers prefer to administer and interpret the tests themselves, rather than employing external consultants, then the costs will include initial training in test use, since it is necessary to be qualified in order to use tests. Further costs will include start-up kits such as manuals or computer software, and consumables such as question-and-answer booklets for test candidates. (Jenkins 2001) In order to become a trained assessor, a person needs to obtain certification from the British Psychological society (BPA), and requires the completion of two courses, Level A and Level B. The BPS Level A covers the use and interpretation of ability tests. The BPS Level B covers the use and interpretation of personality tests. In general the test companies will often provide courses leading to these qualifications. These courses usually take about five days for each of Level A and Level B. The average cost per trainee is about â‚ ¬1,900 for Level A and about â‚ ¬2,200 for Level B. It is possible to train some employees to be test administrators, rather than test users, although at least one person in the organisation must be a qualified test user if the company is to be permitted to buy tests. Test administrators can brief candidates prior to testing, and hand out and collect test papers, but cannot score tests, except under supervision, nor interpret the results. Source: IDS survey of British companies Training to become a test administrator is often cheaper than becoming a test user and a fee of perhaps â‚ ¬1000 would be charged for a test administrator course. However, it is likely that larger companies would want to have several people qualified to test user standard, as well as more employees qualified to administer the tests. According to Edenborough (2004) the major component of cost is the expense of training company staff to be able to obtain and utilize the tests properly, precise costs of psychometric tests will vary but say; in a recruitment context it is unlikely that the expenses are to be more than a couple of percent of a salary. The benefits concerned are also likely to dwarf such figure. Estimating the cost-benefit of psychometric instruments Companies can examine the effect of a recruitment process on a company’s performance by analyzing how well a candidate performs in the role and therefore how much they add to productivity, and balancing this against the investment in their recruitment. Research across a range of organisations suggests that the amount an employer can save, per employee recruited, per year, is: (Validity of the test) multiplied by (Caliber of those selected) multiplied by (Standard deviation of job performance) Minus (Cost of the selection) divided by (Proportion of applicants selected) This formula, known as the utility equation, may look complex, but it has successfully been used by HR professionals in order to justify the use of psychometric instruments and other objective assessment methods. (McHenry 1990) Calculating the cost benefits of psychometric instruments The utility equation can be used to calculate the financial benefit of using psychometric testing as part of an organisations selection process. An example of this would be a company recruiting a person for a position with a â‚ ¬60,000 salary, is possible to compare the financial benefit achieved by using a recruitment process of unstructured interviews that have a validity of 0.18, compared to using personality questionnaires and ability tests that have a combined validity of 0.60. (See table in Appendix 1) Using the utility equation and a conservative estimate of the extent to which this position will impact on company productivity, it can be predicted that using psychometric tools would increase the organization’s productivity by â‚ ¬8,520 compared to using unstructured interviews. This calculation assumes that the candidate remains in the job for one year; if they remain for three years the productivity increase can be as much as â‚ ¬25,160. Source: McHenry (1990) Current Usage within Industries According to Psychometric Success testing is now used by over 80% of the Fortune 500 companies in the USA and by over 75% of the Times Top 100 companies in the UK. Information technology companies, financial institutions, management consultancies, local authorities, the civil service, police forces, fire services and the armed forces all make extensive use of use psychometric testing.   In 2006 a survey identified that well over 2,500 personality questionnaires are available on the market, this number is increasing each year as dozens of new companies appear with their own ‘new’ products. The reasons for test use suggest that the perceived objectivity of tests, their predictive abilities, as well as their ability to filter out unsuitable candidates were important reasons for test use in both the public and private sectors, however according Jenkins (2001) equal opportunities legislation may have also encouraged employers to use tests as part of a drive to fairer selection. There are also a number of studies linking increases in test use to the spread of greater professionalism in the human resource management function, and to multi-national companies imposing standard selection procedures throughout their businesses. It has been estimated that it can cost organisations the equivalent of the whole of the first years costs (salary and any other benefits) to put right a wrong recruitment decision. Research reported in a number of test manuals shows that using good assessments professionally as part of the recruitment process dramatically increases the number of right dec isions you make. In order to establish reasons for organisations use of psychometric testing, it was necessary to look at statistics carried on British organisations, due to the limited availability of published research in Ireland. Surveys carried out by Bevan and Fryatt (1988) and by Psychometrics in the Construction Industry Psychometrics in the Construction Industry Abstract This dissertation is about evaluating the use of psychometrics in the construction industry. The document will also present the main aims and objectives of the study. A comprehensive literature study has also been carried out with the objective of gaining an in-depth understanding of the topic of psychometrics. The literature review chapter will identify a selection of the testing methods that are available on the market, test design, usage within industry and the associated costs with such tests. A methodology and potential constraints have also been identified, and finally a timetable has been proposed. The survey indicated that companies are beginning to realise the benefits of psychometric testing, 1.1 Introduction This dissertation proposal has been compiled as part of the BSc (Honours) in construction management. It is necessary for the individual to produce a research project on the subject of his/her own choice that is construction related. The topic chosen for the purposes this dissertation is that of psychometric science. 1.2 Nature of the Problem Few people in the construction industry would disagree that effective team building is essential to success; however bringing together a bunch of individuals does not automatically produce a team (Franks 2002). Teams have to be assembled by taking into account many factors, including individual skill and particularly the personal characteristics of the individual member, psychometric testing is one way of ensuring the correct team members are recruited, thus maximizing the capabilities of the team. Psychometrics covers a range of testing methods from IQ and aptitude tests to personality questionnaires and numbercy indicators. Many organisations now use this form of testing routinely in their recruitment processes especially at senior level, according to Corcoran (2005) it forces an examination and sound understanding of the competencies inherent in the role in question and links the candidate’s competencies with those to the role. Hampton (2002) suggests that these tests are not just limited to recruitment; they can also be used in career development to raise awareness of the individual’s own strengths and weaknesses. The need for this research stems from the fact that compared to other industries where the use of psychometrics is widespread; construction firms seem to be blind to its benefits. As an industry that relies heavily on good teamwork, construction could gain from a wider implementation of psychometrics in both recruitment and team development. Also if survey statistics are to be believed, up to 56% of candidates exaggerate their skills/experience on their CV. Making a recruitment decision purely on the content of a CV and interview alone, could prove to be unreliable. Whilst a CV certainly provides an overview of a candidate’s ability, it doesn’t necessarily illustrate their suitability for the role. Likewise, an applicant may handle an interview extremely well but not have the capability to deliver the role itself. Psychometric testing therefore attempts to add a third dimension to the team building/recruitment process. The need for this research is therefore obvious and will be designed to test the following hypothesis: â€Å"Psychometric testing is critical to successful team building in the Irish construction industry.† 1.3 Rationale As an industry that relies heavily on good teamwork, it is essential that that the right people are selected for the right jobs. This rationale for this dissertation is to establish whether or not construction could benefit from the wider implementation of psychometric testing, and also to evaluate the current usage of psychometric testing in the industry. Establishing the usage of psychometric testing is a critical part of this research, it establishes the current trends in the construction industry towards recruitment and team development and once this is established it may help organisations see the way forward. To achieve this, a literature review, a pilot study and postal questionnaires shall be conducted. Initial research has indicated that the construction industry is slow to realise the benefits of testing in both recruitment and team development. Employers need to be made aware of both the advantages and disadvantages of psychometrics which enable them to make an informed decision as to whether or not psychometrics is appropriate to their organisation. 1.4 Aims The general aim of this research is to investigate if psychometric testing is either a beneficial or a counterproductive exercise to a construction organisation in the selection of team members. To establish the extent of use of psychometrics within the Irish Construction Industry. To gain a comprehensive understanding of the topic of psychometrics. 1.5 Objectives of the Research To provide a general overview of the topic of psychometric science. To review the range of testing methods available. To establish the apparent advantages and disadvantages to a construction organisation in adopting psychometric testing. To assess the current usage of psychometrics within the Irish construction industry. 1.6 Hypothesis â€Å"The benefits of Psychometric Testing are not fully appreciated in the Irish Construction Industry† 1.7 Outline Methodology The methodology section for this dissertation will provide a rationale for the choice and use of particular strategies and tools for gathering and analyzing the data. A quantitative research strategy was used as part of the methodology, which helped in the execution of both the literature review and the questionnaire. The literature review was one the first stages of the methodology; this was used to highlight the importance of using psychometric testing in both recruitment and team building. The methodology also involved the production of structured questionnaire; these were compiled to assess the current usage of psychometric testing among organisations within the Irish Construction Industry. A pilot study of the questionnaire was first conducted to provide a trial run for the questionnaire, which involves testing the wording of the questions and identifying any ambiguous questions. A detailed analysis of the results was then produced; it will consist of questions, answers, tables, figures and charts to represent the data. Finally an interview was conducted with a member of an organisation utilising psychometrics as part of their recruitment process. Methodology 2.1 Introduction This chapter will set out to outline the methods of data collection that were adopted for the purposes of the dissertation. The methodology chapter for this dissertation of 4 main parts: A general definition and review of the approach to the research. A justification for the selection of the hypothesis, aims and objectives. A description of the data collection and analytical procedures. A review of the methodological complexities that were encountered, including the limitations and constraints on the research. 2.2 Research Strategy A primarily quantitative research strategy was adopted for the purposes of this dissertation. The rationale for the selection of this method is that quantitative research is used when the individual needs to identify facts about a concept, question or an attribute. This ties in closely with the objectives and aims of the report. Naoum (1998) describes quantitative research as â€Å"an inquiry into a social or human problem, this closely relates to the initial aims objectives of the research† 2.3 Theoretical Framework This dissertation will be approached using a both sociological and psychological framework. The former of which is concerned with cultural roles, norms and values and the structuring and functioning of society. Also explored will be the psychological aspects such as personality traits and relationships between individual team members. 2.4 Historical Framework One of the first attempts to scientifically measure the differences between individuals was made by Sir Francis Galton in the 19th Century when he tried to show how the human mind could be systematically mapped into different dimensions, identifying how individuals differed in terms of their ability. The psychological approach and the first published test can be credited to Sir Alfred Binet. 2.5 Psychological Framework Psychometric testing is fundamentally a form of psychological assessment, Postal Questionnaires Postal questionnaires along with a cover letter will be distributed to a number of Irish construction firms to gather information on the current usage and the popularity of psychometrics within the Irish construction industry. Before these questionnaires are distributed, it will be necessary to complete a pilot study before the final data is collected. The pilot study will provide a trial run for the questionnaire, and its main aim is to test the wording of the questions, identify any ambiguous questions and test the techniques being used Once the pilot study is complete, the main questionnaire will be distributed. To establish an accurate sample of the industry, it will be necessary to get a minimum number of responses to the main questionnaire. This number will be determined by the constraints of time imposed on the research, however it is expected that this will be in the region of 10-15 responses. This study will be primarily aimed at the larger construction firms in the industry. A random selection procedure will be adopted, to ensure that a representative sample of the firms is taken. Where possible, questionnaires will be delivered and collected to ensure a high response rate. Otherwise when replies are not received, the enquiries will be followed up by subsequent emails and phone calls.Tables, graphs, bar charts and histograms have been identified as a means of presenting the data from the questionnaires. The Research Sample Due to the relatively high costs involved in the implementation of psychometric instruments, the smaller organisations in the industry tend to avoid using this method of recruitment and team development. To establish an accurate representation of the industry, the research sample was confined to those in the Top 100 Irish construction companies (The Times, 2007). This sample was further refined down 35 using a random selection procedure. The types of organisation were sampled from a number of different disciplines within the construction industry, including: 1. Civil Engineering Contractor’s 2. Building Contractor’s 3. Building Services Contractor’s 4.Project Management organisations 5. Engineering Consultants 6. Multi-disciplinary organisations Literature Review This paper reviews the literature on psychometric testing by employers, and considers whether or not psychometric testing is a critical element of the recruitment process. It will seek to outline the fundamental benefits associated with the concept of psychometric testing and determine current trends regarding the usage of these tests in the Irish Construction Industry. According to Reber (1995) psychometric testing has been defined as â€Å"Pertaining to mental testing in any of its facets, including assessment of personality, evaluation of intelligence, determining aptitudes.† Rust (2004) classifies these tests into two broad categories: those that assess ability and those that assess personality. The way that organizations operate has changed dramatically in the last 30 years, there are now fewer levels of management than there were, and management styles tend to be less autocratic. In addition, there appears to be a move towards more knowledge based and customer focused jobs, which means that individuals have more autonomy even in the lower levels within organizations (Edenborough 2004). The effects of these changes mean that a person’s personality is seen as more important now than it was in the past. The structure of the modern workforce within the Irish Construction Industry is also rapidly changing and teamwork is becoming increasingly important, here a psychometric test can prove an invaluable tool, not only does it make sure that each team has the required skills but it also ensures that the people who make up team can work well together or that they can â€Å"gel effectively†. An article in China Staff magazine (2003) points out that this doesn’t mean that everybody in the team should be the same, rather than that you end up with a combination of personalities who can work well together. Each type of test may not suit every organisation, the design of a testing procedure must be based on what the user is wishing to achieve from the results. Burke (1995) suggests that the various types of â€Å"tests are designed for a purpose and the use of a particular test will vary according to the objectives of the assessment. In order to ascertain which tests you should use, it is necessary to gain an in-depth understanding of the characteristics necessary to perform well at the job. Recruitment and Selection Many organisations now use psychometric testing routinely in their recruitment process especially at a senior level. It forces an examination and sound understanding of the competencies inherent in the role in question and links the candidate’s competencies with those of the role. It makes for sound selection decisions and identifies development areas for the successful candidate (Corcoran 2005). Ideally, if psychometrics is used at the initial selection stage, employers are immediately aware of any areas ability or personality where an employee might not be an exact match for the job, and can make informed decisions as to whether the employee should be selected and trained, or rejected. Type of Testing Available Personality Measurement Tests These tests are used to assess how a person is likely to react to situations with people, the types of relationship they prefer to establish with others, and the motivational factors that influence a person’s actions. These are often known as tests of disposition. These tests do not generally contain questions to which there is only one correct answer. The answers given to these questions tend to reflect a tendency to interpret situations or respond to other people in particular ways. Burke (1995) outlines the typical qualities assessed by disposition tests; these include anxiety, sociability, perseverance, dominance, fear of failure and resistance to stress. A common approach to in psychometrics is to see personality as a combination of traits. A trait can be any characteristic way of behaving, thinking, feeling or operating. The measure of these ‘traits’ has always been a matter of interest for many years, it has been recognized that personality is of great impo rtance in peoples success at work, no less than the approach they take in other aspects of their life (Edenbourgh 2005). Psychologists often refer to these as the ‘big five’ personality traits. Openness appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. Conscientiousness a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior. Extraversion energy, positive emotions, urgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others. Agreeableness a tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others. Neuroticism a tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability; sometimes called emotional instability. The argument runs that personality questionnaires do not test behavior directly but rather how the respondent chooses to describe his or her own behavior. It also argued by Cronbach (1966) that such questionnaires or self-report inventories, as they are sometimes known, indicate typical behavior. One corollary to this view by Reber(1995) is that such behavior is not very amenable to change, these type of tests have no right or wrong answers as such, however there is certainly the right and wrong personality mixes for certain jobs. Ability and Aptitude Tests ‘Aptitude’ and ‘Ability’ tests are not always precisely separated; many of the tests in these categories are used to look at behavior, often of an intellectual or cognitive nature. These are usually tests of general intelligence, which can be regarded as mental horsepower or as measure of a person’s ability to process information. Tests of ability generally assess the broader areas of what a person can do. While scores on such tests are influenced by education and training, they are not designed to assess specific areas of knowledge or skill. Examples of ability tests are: measures of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning and mechanical reasoning. China Staff magazine (2003) defines ability testing â€Å"as a measure of a persons potential to learn the new skills needed for a new job or to cope with the demands of a training course.† Tests of aptitude on the other hand are often used to assess how well an individual is likely to perform in a training programme or in a job Edenbourgh (2005) attempts to distinguish between the two: The term ‘aptitude’ is usually reserved for those tests directed at predicting whether skill in a particular area can be acquired. ‘Ability tests’ on the other hand tend to be reserved for measures of less job-specific though often still job-related intellectual tests. Attainment Tests These are often referred to as achievement tests; these are more commonly used in relation to educational assessment rather than in occupational settings. They represent standard ways of assessing the amount of skill currently reached or attained by an individual in a particular area. Tests of attainment are often linked with ability and can be quite similar; the difference is that they test specifically what people have learnt e.g. mathematical ability or typing skills. Of course what people have learned does depend on their ability in that domain in the first place, so the scores of the two types of test are linked. Another differentiation between the two is that ability tests are retrospective in nature; they focus on what has been learnt and on what a person knows and can do now. Ability tests on the other hand are prospective: they focus on what candidates are capable of learning and achieving in the future or on their potential to learn. (China Staff Magazine 2003) Assessment Centres Psychometric testing often takes place within the context of an assessment centre. Edenbourgh (2004) points outs that organisations use a range of selection methods, including interviews, group exercises, role-playing, in-basket exercises as well as psychometric testing in order to select from a group of job applicants. Candidates are likely to encounter tests that will simulate situations that are likely to be encountered in a particular role. Assessment centre selection methods can take one or two days to complete, and because of the cost and time taken these are generally only associated with larger organisations. Assessment centers are usually used after the initial stages of the selection process and usually follow the initial job interview. They are commonly held either on employers’ premises or in a hotel and are considered by many organizations to be the fairest and most accurate method of selecting staff. This according to Psychometric Success is because â€Å"a number of different selectors will get to see the individual over a longer period of time and have the chance to see what he/she do, rather than what the individual says they can do.† Tests that are carried out within these assessment centres are often conducted by HR personnel however it is often the case that external consultants will be brought in to administer the tests. Ability to distinguish between candidates Any selection tool should be able to distinguish between candidates in two ways: 1) The tool should be accurate and precise. Any differences in results between candidates should be real and not simply random or due to errors or inaccuracies. This is known as reliability, and psychometric tools have consistently been shown to be more reliable than other common selection methods. 2) The differences in results between candidates should reflect differences in their ability to perform in the job. This is known as criterion-related validity. As shown in Diagram 3, psychometric tools do predict job performance well, provided that the right tool has been chosen, for example, via a careful analysis of the attributes required for the job. Differences in results do therefore relate to differences in ability to perform well in the job. The importance of getting this right is one reason why most instruments are only sold to those who have been trained in their use. Reliability One of the main problems associated with psychometric testing is the issue of test reliability. For instance, if there is high competition for a job  then there is strong incentive for candidates to present themselves favorably.   Similarly candidates can be tempted to respond to personality questionnaires in a way they assume the employer wants.   If we consider a construction related job, how many candidates will disagree with the statement I enjoy working in team environment? Edenbourgh (2005) identifies one way of increasing the reliability in personality questionnaires, this is to use forced-choice formats whereby candidates are presented with a combination of statements and must indicate a preference between them, this method of combining items is known as ‘ipsative’ scaling. This can be contrasted with the ‘normative scaling’, in which the candidate is instructed to choose one statement from a selection of 2 or more. For example in an ipsative test, a question might ask a candidate to choose whether they are more hard working or creative.   In this case the candidate cannot make themselves look good on both of the statements, it therefore can be said that this method can increase the reliability of certain tests and give the assessor a greater profile of the candidate’s personality. Disadvantages to Psychometric Testing In many cases, psychometric tests and questionnaires have been put together by people with little background in psychometrics and they may have very little actual utility and value for the purposes for which they are marketed. Although British Psychological Society (BPS) has a standard qualification system, it is not unusual for tests to be used by people who are not adequately trained to score them. Also just because a person attends a recognized training course it cannot be guaranteed that they will use tests and questionnaires correctly since some instruments, particularly personality questionnaires, require considerable experience and the possibility of poor interpretation of results is ever-present. Another disadvantage of psychometric testing is the use of personality questionnaires to assess an individual’s ability or skill in a particular area. For example, if a person scores highly on a test called Leadership, this does not mean that he or she will actually possess a high level of leadership skill, instead it means that the individual has the basic personality characteristics that are commonly found amongst effective leaders and, with sufficient experience and given the development of certain necessary skills, has the potential to become an effective leader. (Team Focus 2004) Cost The costs associated with these tests are often substantial. This implies that employers are unlikely to be using them merely in order to follow a management trend, but because they firmly believe that the tests are useful in recruiting job applicants with the right skills and attributes. According to a recent survey by Incomes Data Services (IDS 2000), the sums involved in testing can be quite substantial. Assuming that employers prefer to administer and interpret the tests themselves, rather than employing external consultants, then the costs will include initial training in test use, since it is necessary to be qualified in order to use tests. Further costs will include start-up kits such as manuals or computer software, and consumables such as question-and-answer booklets for test candidates. (Jenkins 2001) In order to become a trained assessor, a person needs to obtain certification from the British Psychological society (BPA), and requires the completion of two courses, Level A and Level B. The BPS Level A covers the use and interpretation of ability tests. The BPS Level B covers the use and interpretation of personality tests. In general the test companies will often provide courses leading to these qualifications. These courses usually take about five days for each of Level A and Level B. The average cost per trainee is about â‚ ¬1,900 for Level A and about â‚ ¬2,200 for Level B. It is possible to train some employees to be test administrators, rather than test users, although at least one person in the organisation must be a qualified test user if the company is to be permitted to buy tests. Test administrators can brief candidates prior to testing, and hand out and collect test papers, but cannot score tests, except under supervision, nor interpret the results. Source: IDS survey of British companies Training to become a test administrator is often cheaper than becoming a test user and a fee of perhaps â‚ ¬1000 would be charged for a test administrator course. However, it is likely that larger companies would want to have several people qualified to test user standard, as well as more employees qualified to administer the tests. According to Edenborough (2004) the major component of cost is the expense of training company staff to be able to obtain and utilize the tests properly, precise costs of psychometric tests will vary but say; in a recruitment context it is unlikely that the expenses are to be more than a couple of percent of a salary. The benefits concerned are also likely to dwarf such figure. Estimating the cost-benefit of psychometric instruments Companies can examine the effect of a recruitment process on a company’s performance by analyzing how well a candidate performs in the role and therefore how much they add to productivity, and balancing this against the investment in their recruitment. Research across a range of organisations suggests that the amount an employer can save, per employee recruited, per year, is: (Validity of the test) multiplied by (Caliber of those selected) multiplied by (Standard deviation of job performance) Minus (Cost of the selection) divided by (Proportion of applicants selected) This formula, known as the utility equation, may look complex, but it has successfully been used by HR professionals in order to justify the use of psychometric instruments and other objective assessment methods. (McHenry 1990) Calculating the cost benefits of psychometric instruments The utility equation can be used to calculate the financial benefit of using psychometric testing as part of an organisations selection process. An example of this would be a company recruiting a person for a position with a â‚ ¬60,000 salary, is possible to compare the financial benefit achieved by using a recruitment process of unstructured interviews that have a validity of 0.18, compared to using personality questionnaires and ability tests that have a combined validity of 0.60. (See table in Appendix 1) Using the utility equation and a conservative estimate of the extent to which this position will impact on company productivity, it can be predicted that using psychometric tools would increase the organization’s productivity by â‚ ¬8,520 compared to using unstructured interviews. This calculation assumes that the candidate remains in the job for one year; if they remain for three years the productivity increase can be as much as â‚ ¬25,160. Source: McHenry (1990) Current Usage within Industries According to Psychometric Success testing is now used by over 80% of the Fortune 500 companies in the USA and by over 75% of the Times Top 100 companies in the UK. Information technology companies, financial institutions, management consultancies, local authorities, the civil service, police forces, fire services and the armed forces all make extensive use of use psychometric testing.   In 2006 a survey identified that well over 2,500 personality questionnaires are available on the market, this number is increasing each year as dozens of new companies appear with their own ‘new’ products. The reasons for test use suggest that the perceived objectivity of tests, their predictive abilities, as well as their ability to filter out unsuitable candidates were important reasons for test use in both the public and private sectors, however according Jenkins (2001) equal opportunities legislation may have also encouraged employers to use tests as part of a drive to fairer selection. There are also a number of studies linking increases in test use to the spread of greater professionalism in the human resource management function, and to multi-national companies imposing standard selection procedures throughout their businesses. It has been estimated that it can cost organisations the equivalent of the whole of the first years costs (salary and any other benefits) to put right a wrong recruitment decision. Research reported in a number of test manuals shows that using good assessments professionally as part of the recruitment process dramatically increases the number of right dec isions you make. In order to establish reasons for organisations use of psychometric testing, it was necessary to look at statistics carried on British organisations, due to the limited availability of published research in Ireland. Surveys carried out by Bevan and Fryatt (1988) and by